Closed Captions Audio Described

Louis Pitt Jr., Director of Governmental Affairs and Planning at the Warm Springs Reservation, examines two centuries of U.S.–tribal relations through the lens of treaties and discovery narratives. He discusses Warm Springs history, plank house villages, salmon ecology, and the Columbia River Cascades region, while critiquing colonial legal concepts and presenting indigenous perspectives on land ownership, governance, and contemporary tribal economic sovereignty.

Transcript

0:03 What are you saying?
0:15 Good afternoon everyone and welcome to the Tenement Voices and Core Discovery Two. There has been a bit of a scheduled change. Our scheduled presenter was not able to attend so we are gonna have continuation in some ways on our last presentation, uh Louis Pitt Junior will be speaking again here at Tenement of many voices.
0:40 The Tenement voices is part of Core Discovery Two. It's a national traveling exhibit. It's been traveled since January 2003. We continued to travel through October of 2006 during the four years of the bicentennial on the Lewis and Clark expedition. What we do here in the Tenement
1:01 Voices is we invite in a wide variety of presenters to share with us the different aspects of the Lewis and Clark expedition, the different aspects of the history and culture of all those American Indian nations that were living here before the arrival of Lewis and Clark. And as I said, right here from Lewis Pitt Junior, uh the Warm Springs Reservation.
1:26 He's Director of Governmental Affairs and Planning. He's gonna share uh some of the history of treaties, the treaty, a perspective on Treaties sets the time of Jefferson. So let's give him a warm welcome here
1:48 in the language of this area it took to we,
1:53 it's my dad's people, the language of upriver people just around the corner about uh 12 miles a year against the me. A good afternoon. My Indian name is Yellen Ships. Uh My dad's people were Cascade Locks people. Cascade was Los and my dad is enrolled at the National
2:17 Indian reservation north of here. My mom was a, a wine uh skiing person from distances across the way. They went back to for kind of one group of people on different sides of the river. And she's enrolled at Wring is about 70 miles south of here. And uh I was uh
2:40 had a good laugh just thinking about, I went up to Clio this morning uh up river to see if they have any services up there so I can wear my ribbon shirt and uh they weren't getting going. But I was just laughing about the uh we helped to build a log house up there. We use Corps of Engineers dollars to do so we kind of stretch the rules
3:04 on building our fishing treaty access sites and we're able to build a log house that something that was really needed in the neglected community. And then we're gonna build some houses trying to make the body flooded people out in the bells stand when we flooded our people out, trying to correct those in a better way than they did the first two times. But one of the stories was, is that when we designed the kitchen of this long house,
3:29 is that, uh, as I was going through there getting some food one day, there was music to my ears because in the past because their kitchen was so poorly designed and small that they complained a lot about the kitchen. Well, this time we're back to business as usual. All they complained about was their husbands.
3:51 So I don't think you put that down as a standard of uh how well is it constructive? Because anyway, that was music to my ears. And uh one of my projects in the contemporary setting is to work with the tribes of the aftermath or springs. And s first, I also work with nine Oregon tribes and we work with sing.
4:13 That's my Director of Veteran Affairs work and I work with federal agencies and state agencies and other tribes. Um
4:22 I would like to convey to you probably just a couple of simple messages about uh the 200 years of the past some of the wrongdoings. A term called discovery. I'd like to talk about treaty, give you some insights on treaties. You probably never heard before from a Native American, from a tribal viewpoint of my viewpoint. And then, uh again, talk about what's the 200 years from now?
4:48 Life is good for thousands of years. What we call time immemorial. Since the beginning of time, our people were put here in, in the land and of the land. There's a phrase that my upriver, my mom's people say teach he Mimi seem to me all to Mare, which means at the time of creation,
5:09 we are the people that were put in the land and were of the land and that is our law. We're the spokesmen of these lands. And so for me, that is a song that we sing every Sunday. That's what I wanted to hear when I was going up to see, I was to hear that. And then you know how spiritual growth is, you sit there and you kind of wondering, you know, where am I today? What's going on and
5:31 try to connect with uh my blood and also my spirit. So life was good for thousands of years. We had our own governments. We owned our areas. There's a term called occupy. We didn't own, we just occupied. No, we own these lands that were given to us by the creator. I'm forgetting. My
5:55 Paul Kane was an artist that traveled with the heart, army engineers and explorers that went through this area in 1918 47 is showing down river, this is the area that Lewis and Clark were getting. The first uh evidence that there were the tidal effect that the, the the ocean was raising up and down the waters is that uh
6:19 it was down in this area about uh 40 - 45 miles down. Life is good. Again, men hunted men fish, then did the military thing and uh protect their boundaries and um shared decision making processes in some tribes and some uh for, you know, male oriented decision making women have their roles with the, the children,
6:42 the management of the camps in the gathering of roots and berries. And uh, life went on. Uh and again, that way, successfully for thousands of years. Here's a uh painting by John Nick Stanley. I always get a kick out of this because of, of uh what ended in his right mind would build a place right down on the river because rivers are rivers,
7:06 they're wild, they go up and they go down and uh there can be a, a natural dam maybe breaking loose that comes down with the wave that would wipe, wipe all that out. That's far too close to the river there. But anyway, it, it conveys, I think if you do look at it for, for the knowledge and, and the information it has. Uh there are structures, square structures,
7:32 uh Lewis and Clark commented to when they got down into this area. Well, finally you run into people that had something similar to us. They had wooden buildings that were square and rectangular. And uh we have folks that uh all up and down the wasco area, which is uh again from um about 12 miles up and down to the same, almost,
7:55 same speakers all the way down to the Pacific Ocean. Used plank houses have wooden plank houses made of cedar, cedar has a quality of being able to be split just like a good plank board. You can do that through fairly rudimentary tools and so you have your, you have houses, you have uh drying areas, uh you have uh storage areas.
8:18 Uh Terry Courtney uh Junior was here talking the first day a wasco person. We put him first. I suggest that he be first because he's of this place. And he talked about a building like this is that if he had the size proportionately, your family would only live in this section right here and said, because then the rest of it would be for your survival and living through winter, not only survival,
8:43 but also trading back and forth where you could get other materials. And though you just live in a part of it, that was the realities of the time. Uh circle of life. Circle of life is a real valuable tool for governmental guys like me is that when I was looking and thinking about the circle of life for salmon. Now, wait a minute, I went and talked to my boss about that.
9:07 Is that salmon, salmon? Uh right here, he said, uh if you look through their whole existence, he said salmon only uh are important when you catch them in the net. You have to make sure that you have salmon as babies. You have salmon if you go out and get big when they go out in the ocean. So the whole life of salmon from, um, they get by the na
9:31 holiday statement, they go up into the spa, up into the mountains. These are wonderful creatures. I fell in love with salmon when I worked with fish and fisheries. And um, their last great act is to spot and, and have their babies. And then in the springtime, these little, these little guys precious little guys come, just fight their way out of the sand and then they're, they just start growing and the wild salmon,
9:56 there's nothing more exciting than a wild salmon. They're just uh, so, so alive and so fresh. Just like a little kid. You know, about, about a 1.5 year old. They got a lot of energy, a lot of kind of will to live. And, uh, but those sound go downstream. They're dependent upon clean water, cold water, bigger streams, taking chances all the way down
10:20 before there wasn't a uh uh, a Dalles Dam or a Bonneville Dam. And they went out to the oceans to fried and drove. And so with my boss, I talked about that. We want to seem to be concerned about. One part of that circle is the hardest part. We need to think about the whole circle from gravel to gravel. So we invented reinvented, rediscovered the circle.
10:45 And that's where we've been working with the, all of our neighbors, the US government, the BLM, forest services. We have four
10:55 uh we, we, we have uh ceremonies throughout the year. It starts out with water. And in the early spring we have latif la. Here we have the root feasts, thanking the creator for the many gifts. And uh we have the uh first salmon ceremonies
11:15 and then we have the Huckleberry piece and we all thank water for that. And what we're getting is the blood of the land. Water. Like other creations from the gifts from the crater. You take care of the creator's gifts and they'll take care of you. It's very simple doctrines that have lasted for thousands of years.
11:39 We, uh, um, on the table when we eat is that we start out. This is the way it's been since I've been a baby boy and I've been around a while. 57 years. I know some of you have been real hungry with that, but start out with water with salmon, the deer roots, birds back to water again. So,
12:03 and again, it's been singing songs, some thinking the creator talking about life in our churches. So we, we don't call them churches. We live a way of life, not just in the church, not just on Sunday, every day. And, uh, we're real proud of that. If you've ever from hunting or fishing, you can sure feel that in your blood as, uh, myself when I did go to, uh,
12:27 well, I A falls to do some fishing down there. It just seems so wonderful. I was so aligned with the universe, you know, kind of a, um, almost mystical type of experience but I felt, uh, uh, uh, as a connected to forever. And, uh, so it's very much in the blood. That's what I teach my kids is don't fight your Indian blood. You'll go crazy if you do.
12:50 Let's jump right back to where the problem started with working with, uh, between the United States of America and the many tribal peoples of our homelands here. George Washington talked to Indian people on the east coast. We need people everywhere, I guess is what he was really thinking.
13:12 The gradual extension of our settlements will certainly cause the savage as the wolf to retire. Both being beasts of prey though they differ in shape.
13:26 We weren't even human.
13:29 We were wild. We hunted, we didn't settle down, we didn't make those square houses back then. We didn't, we did agriculture folks back in those days, did agriculture. They, uh, uh, did so in their own way. Um But this really does say a lot about again, the country and, uh, kind of a distant type thing. George Washington was, uh, really
13:53 somebody that didn't have time to sit down and learn who native people were. He had to deal with this and nation to nation that had a real political realm. So very hard statement, but very much a sign of America at the time. And another person in that same era said that to leave them in possession of their country was to leave the country, a wilderness, a waste of land.
14:18 John Locke, who was a real fan of discovery of an enlightenment era philosopher talked about uh uh it was almost a sin to leave the land in its natural form while wilderness or wildness is even evil. Let that wilderness be dark and evil. And remember some of your, all of your uh
14:42 fairy tales stories deal with that same type of theme about uh the kind of evil with this and evil that um again, if time is the test of what's successful is, don't forget those folks over there on the East Coast. Those evening folks here, they were around since time of me. And how old was America back in George Washington's time? Months, old
15:06 months. What is, who's need to tell us? Hm.
15:13 And this is the one that really gets me going. I've got a, I've got a strap going on with Ken there. His, his staff tells me he suckers for a left hook. So I'll keep that in mind. Ken Ky is the executive director here at the Discovery Center. Discovery. My goodness. I have a lot of problems with some of the legal fiction that was created by those
15:38 mechanics of civilization and progress. Almost lawyers
15:45 they have and, and still do. Yes. And, uh,
15:53 how could somebody that didn't even know the existence say that we didn't own the land but only occupied it? My gosh, that was back when the world was flat. That was back when he traveled the world so far and then he dropped off. And, uh, so I really, we've always given, I'm, I'm planning to see my kids
16:15 and we're gonna learn more of this as I get older and we get more learning than the two. And I'm not sure what I'm really asking for in this, but we acknowledge Warm Springs is a tribe with three tribes. Orang Springs walks one fo we have a pretty good deal with our treaty. We have had to fight for it from day one.
16:37 You have other tribes that have just been raked over the coals, unfair inhumane treated still yet almost as subhuman 58 tribes or so. In Oklahoma, most of those tribes don't even come from Oklahoma. They come from Georgia. They come from what was North Carolina? They come from what was, is not South Carolina.
17:00 Their homelands are 1000 miles away from where they are. I'm standing on my homeland and I'm talking to you about how I feel right now, not only as authority as an American, but as a tribal member too, I don't think some of those folks have the, the privilege that, right. So there's a lot of things that we have to correct, but I'm mad about the arrogance,
17:23 the arrogance of a, of a nation state, the league of nations, the manifest destiny. This really the viewpoint of almost the supremacy over and declaring the subhuman
17:40 sometimes. But no, seriously, it's a, it's a, it's an incredible leap for me to, to say that no, we didn't own the land.
17:54 This uh this is the first time around, excuse my back. This is a Toma Kim. Toma Kim. There's a Mr George who spoke about uh Toma Kim, one of his relatives from before. And he's also notorious too because uh he raised Kane with uh Lewis and Clark and I think it was his dog, Seaman
18:19 and uh that poor dog. My niece has sent me a note, uh Seamen, uh Seamen's dog, uh when uh his master dog uh pined away his life howling over his master's grave, you know, they went 4000 miles
18:39 together and uh Semen as a, you know, dog did it, what dogs do protect their masters. And so anyway, this gentleman, one of the many things that he did, he took off for a while with one of the, with his dog and that was almost a unforgivable sin. So anyway, we, we still like to kind of raise cane with these big officials when they come through. And uh um
19:04 on the way back up, there was uh also another skirmish of sorts when one of the uh Lewis and Clark expedition uh just marched right into one of the lodges and says, oh, you know, here's that uh Tomahawk uh pipe that uh you guys stole from us the first time through OA I, you think so? So it was a very, almost uh beyond the
19:27 diplomacy to more of uh two military powers looking at each other, eye to eye as equals. Don't forget at any time, our folks on the river here could have gave the signal and we could have amassed probably 3 to 400 top line warriors down here to take care of this part of the allegiance. That's part of the way we succeeded. We had to fight the sh show me BS the snakes, the
19:51 paiutes all this time. That were very, very military people and knew how to get around. And so Lewis and Clark militarily with their cannon. So what they got to get to it first now we did history even if we did. So what people would still be in the area. We still, it's just been another war. We have many wars in this area. Tamaya, which you'll see later.
20:16 Uh Tamaya is uh Yakima person that was a great statesman and uh really had a lot of skills to uh I think uh help tribes tonight. And he was a part of uh an encounter with uh Phil Sheridan uh down here and there's another uh, I think the senior officer was a gentleman by the name of Wright.
20:39 That down in the Cascade Lodge area, they ended up because of a war skirmish that come from the Aimo with Popob from, uh Yatil who was like a consultant in war is, uh, they, uh, got the cascade locks folks in trouble and they ended up for she and hanged nine cascade logs folks. And, uh,
21:05 Chief Chief Chew was, uh, he gave a war group according to uh a book written by one of uh Chew's relatives and my relatives too by Chuck Williams. The bridge of the Gods caught on the fire that he gave a war hoping hoping he was at the last minute gonna be saved and then made it pretty clear. He was really scared of the year after that. They were going to put him in the ground
21:30 instead of out on the islands in the uh death vaults that our people, the Moscow folks that put him. We had these vaults above ground where people would be put in the dispatch decay and become part of the, of the area. Being in the ground scared him almost more than death. So again, another encounter between us and the United States,
21:54 there's a point to be made here though too, in the territorial origin later, there is more wrongdoings being done by the territorial citizens of Oregon and Washington than the US government. The US government really did play a role in trying to protect us, especially when we try to choose to be peaceful because, uh, really we had all the time.
22:16 We get our weapons taken away and fairly much had to depend on the US government. Very hard to do. That's what happened down in the road. They took people's, uh, those tribes rifles away. Rifles are still the one of the best tools still used today, but on deer and on and on there. So they, when they took the rifles away, they really hurt the, uh, survivability of a tribe.
22:40 This lady here is related to Thomma K too. She's a, she's the one of Virginia, Virginia Miller, a relative of Chuck's and therefore a relative of mine. She, uh, uh, told her own story to one of the ethnographers at the time about what she felt was the true story and what happened. And, um, so she is a, again, you can see
23:02 just a little remnant of the head shaping of the, uh, I get a kick out thinking about this too, open on the forehead, shaking up the hospital people. Little side story here. I work with the Condor too down on the, uh, carver, uh, with the Oregon Zoo. There was this one of Tony. Tony who runs the, uh, zoo there.
23:26 He was always talking about, let's go up fundraising for a condor. Have you ever seen the Condor up close? They're not the, you know, prettiest looking critters but old Tony is that he says, hey, you know, people were trying to get me enthused about this, you know, a condor is, uh, um, you know, it's got, it's kind of got a bald head
23:49 and it's got a big beak and Tony turned sideways and he's an Italian. And yet so, so I think that's kind of sexy. So,
23:57 ok. Tony, ok. Ok, we get your point. But anyway, moving right along here, Pop, Max, I, I called him almost a consultant before because Pop, he's got uh one of his uh you know, things he's really noted for, he was a great uh strategist in military moving and maneuvers and things like that. Uh we had different functions in all of the tribes and
24:21 I think he was mainly military but he was down here and he was all around trying to, I think probably unite us against the, the new people coming through the area and he's from your Matilla, a Walla Walla person, you know, Woola ps are from an area. Well, the river takes a turn left and that's known as Woola. And then right in that area is uh w
24:46 Walla. Otherwise, let's see, what is it called? It's uh it's got its own name. Wu wu it's on those yellow uh like play sheets that the Hemala had. Wu some people say that's, that's first I thought, well, OK, moving on kayak. Kayak is the uh Yakima chief that uh basically north of the river. He kept a good eye on and,
25:09 and uh forage deals that uh help protect the integrity of uh north of the river here. This is just I put this in here as an example of the plant house, plant houses were uh anywhere from kind of loosely made for summertime with the wind blowing through that you could fix and take up later to downriver. Where of course, remember Lewis and Clark,
25:31 what they complained about most of all downriver was that darn rain, that rains and rains and miserable rain. I said, well, what do you expect? This is gonna be Oregon. And uh
25:46 the canoes. Uh Well, um I forget it was Clark or Lewis, but uh uh one of them spotted for the first time in this area here, a canoe that had a, uh, like this, I guess a bow that was really, uh, really different than anything you've ever seen. And, um, they, they mostly look like this all the way across.
26:10 It didn't have this part and then had a design and it, it, uh, you know, le uh had, I think six canoes type that he saw different types. And one of the theories and discussion by uh uh Gilmore Carolyn Gilmore. This book here is that possibly the one that he was looking at was uh maybe traded as canoes.
26:34 Like all other trading things went up and down the river. Rivers were highways, rivers unite mountains divide. He is a from uh Canada or from British Columbia from the uh uh Vancouver Island because it was something that, uh would fit very well in those bigger waters.
26:56 And so anyway, we, you know, it's one of those conjecture things. How do we find that out? Well, maybe we'll know more later. Um
27:06 You're here. Uh Some people talk about life being hard, life being as such is, uh nevertheless, it's what our people were able to live by for thousands of years. Uh The narrows, the mighty Michigan, the big river just as tremendously. The biggest river in the Pacific Northwest narrowed down to about 50 yards right there.
27:31 It was a tremendous, wonderful thing. I was a kid that used to drive by here and be able to look out and, uh, it was just amazing that such a huge river could narrow down to an area, maybe just a little bigger than this. And like darn fools that the Indians thought they were, guess who's gonna go down this in their canoes.
27:55 So we talk about, uh, there are Indian folks like to gamble and like to bet on anything. Things are won or lost, the foot race, horse race, whatever. And they gathered up to watch, uh, watch them go down and, uh, they made it. Yeah, and I'm sure somebody must own a lot of money on that, that amount of making it because it, it was a very, very dangerous.
28:19 Um Again, uh I think the Gilmore book talks about it today to be classified as class five dangers do not pass very dangerous. Uh We do here the Columbia River probably up here. The, the width like it is now, maybe uh almost uh uh three quarters of a mile, but down to just relatively small area,
28:43 half of a football field wide.
28:46 Here's the depiction of uh ge of ethnologist uh archaeologist, Your own scientists. Talking about the villages down here, the Cascades area against some shameless advertising. Our casino is planned to be right there on that one village is that our people have been in this area since time. Memorial.
29:12 Most of the villages on the north side, it's just the lay of the land type thing. Um This area right here is a real bottleneck. So our folks were uh talked about again, we acted as if we owned it because we did is that if you didn't pay to get past these folks, you didn't go past. If you didn't pay to get back down there, you didn't go down river,
29:34 you have to deal with the toll gate that were set up here by the was out of the Cascade peoples. And uh again, down here is uh the villages at Lewis and Clark talk to and they go all the way down to the cheer. And what is the other one? The cheer coolly down by what's uh Troutdale and uh sandy area.
29:58 Here's going up river. We are. Excuse me, we are right about here. That color area. I color that in because that's what we're, I'm uh hoping to name the, I call it the Disco Center. To be honest, I don't like to call it Discovery Kim. And I, we're gonna keep arguing about this is that there's Indian names for this place right here. There's a village here, a couple of villages right here over here.
30:23 Wasco all the Moscow, uh Kasso Tin Quad. Um And uh oh, what else was there? There's one more village and then up river you have uh WSU WS is right there in Long Pine. We really had two Wasco. Here's a wasco and this is the fish. Watco, another fishing site.
30:46 I was, I got a research job I'm doing now for myself and I want to find the exact spot where the treaty was. Sun right there is number one suspect, but it doesn't help when you have Mosco fishing Wasco. You have the town of Wasco 28 miles from there and you have a couple of other sites right here. A three mile creek.
31:10 Some people say that's where it was signed. Some people will say it's signed there and some say it's signed over there.
31:17 I'm gonna find that out, hopefully in a couple of years to get evidence to where our treaty was actually signed. Yeah, I, I had to rule out the town of Moscow. It's 28 miles away. 28 miles. Today is what, about a half hour in your car? And, uh, but back then with an entourage on me, that's a good day's ride
31:38 when we go up, pick our whole families because we had hundreds of people in our treating thing. Uh, you know, because if, if you sign for somebody in ways, you had to have good representatives in the crowd that would just kind of give you the, ah, but hey, you, uh, you know, you're ok to sign this. We agree. If you didn't have them there, then you're kind of sticking your neck way out. Um, tribal villages, here's the cook
32:03 cats villages all along both sides of the river. The Lewis and Clark right here, the friendly village. They, they had an encounter there that was positive, uh, that's called Doug's Beach. Now, Doug's Beach is one of the best windsurfing places around as well. It's also a sacred cultural site to us. I came down here and we, uh, cut a deal with, uh,
32:25 the local folks that use that area for them to have a strip to get them down to their windsurfing sites and then protect the rest of the site. And, uh, I kind of went away out of the limb on that. And finally, it took me about a week to get that come out to buy into the idea and then orange springs to buy into the idea. I did the same type of thing. Uh, out in a place called Lyle,
32:48 they had a development down there and I called up one lawyer and said from, from Orange Springs and I said, hey, the y to my lawyer is gonna be there. You better be there. And then I called up the other lawyer and said, hey, who's that other lawyer? We, so then we got them both on site to help us protect them all the trip we have, we have relatives that speak the same language to keep
33:12 folks all the way down to the Pacific Ocean. I'm gonna talk down here about to learn more about that relationship. Uh Again, the same type of group of people, the Orange Springs people here, Hawaiian and nine of these are docks. Plus the Thai. You look out your Matilda and kee country that first and you gotta know what you're doing. You good today when you go up to that area, the
33:36 pause, the 13 different tribes in that area in Oregon, wonderfully diverse people. Traditionally, we're always at odds with them. Um The Valley people, the rogue River tribes down there almost, they could have won that war until they get a lot of things up. We gave to the United States millions of acres, 10 million acres for us, 12 million, 8 million and about 10 million des
34:01 first treated the introduce Clark very well. Didn't do them any good. They uh, uh, got land so roughly even now smaller than anything they imagined. One of the views of success, there are about 15% tribally owner control about, uh, oh, I don't know, 55% tribally own control. About 60% tribally owner control arms springs,
34:25 99%. This is what we look like. We have plans for our lands, wilderness areas, protect their water quality, try to keep things working order. Don't break them. The 10 million acres we gave to the United States in return for the right to fish hunt, gather roots and various and uh patch our stocks. 13 counties. We have to work with Louisiana purchase was uh
34:51 the point of Louisiana purchase was just the nations were deciding who got first bids on who got to buy the lands for the original owners. That was the tribal folks in this area. They didn't buy anything. It wasn't real estate transaction until they through treaty or purchased through treaty or war that they acquired the lands.
35:12 Jefferson described America, I think as the still tried to work it for public deliberation and civic education for participation in politics. Real rebellion goes a long ways. That's what Jackson said.
35:28 Unfinished revolution. That's where we are now. How do you make this a better place in a greater country? This is the thing the next 200 years. This doesn't just better than anything I can say. The casino is not a statement of who we are. But only it means to get us where we want to be. We have tried property for 200 years. So we decided to try something else.
35:52 So we're gonna be using our economic sovereignty or whatever tools we can buy into is this one to try to continue our life as uh Indian people, various tribes throughout the nation. And uh we, we one of the things that we have to learn as Americans is to accept the diversity of different peoples and their different governments within the country and outside of the country.
36:16 So, thank you very much
36:25 and thank you, Louie for sharing again. Uh hearing the 10 many voices, Louie was kind of a last minute replacement for this particular hour. So we kind of rushed his program a bit and we appreciate him putting out with our time schedule.

Tent of Many Voices

Louis Pitt Jr. on Warm Springs treaties and tribal sovereignty

Louis Pitt Jr.

Warm Springs

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Louis Pitt Jr. on Warm Springs treaties and tribal sovereignty

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